Gangwon Province Wildfire, S. Korea | April 2019

 Gangwon Province Wildfire, S. Korea | April 2019

On 4 April 4, 2019, an apparent transformer spark near a resort in the mountainous region along the northeast coast of the Republic of Korea started a historic wildfire in South Korea. The wind-driven (~45mph) wildfire engulfed the border town of Sokch and stretched further along the southern Gangwon province coast near Donghae (JPSS SOC, 2019). The fire lasted until April 6, 2019. 

A view of the fire that broke out a day earlier strikes the mountains of Gangneung, ~150 miles east of Seoul, South Korea, early 05 April 2019 (NST, 2019)

Destruction:

By the time 13,000 firefighters had put out most of the blaze, two people had died, dozens were injured, and almost 5,000 were displaced while nearly 500 homes and buildings were destroyed or damaged, thousands of livestock were lost, and two square miles of forest had burned (Volvo, 2020). Thousands of rescue officials came from across the nation to aid the vast range burned behind. South Korea is still coping with the damage as this wildfire was the most historic to occur on their soil. Finance Minister Hong Nam-ki estimates they have received $3.7 million in emergency aid and recovery efforts combined. 

                                             

The fire starts in Goseong located ~130 miles from Seoul and is seen approaching a gas station 

 (Straits Times, 2019)

The fire is seen raging near buildings in Sokcho, South Korea (Kangwon Ilbo via Getty Images)

Discussion: 

The cause of this multi-day event is still under investigation though many believe a fallen electrical wire is the cause. An electrical arc set the dry fuel below ablaze when knocked down during extreme winds that night. It is speculated that the increased friction between the connecting wires and utility poles caused sparks that ignited the mountain fire (KBS, 2019). One of the constricted wires was actually exposed which further contributed to the disaster. The energy company responsible, Korea Electric Power Corporation of poor construction and frequent mismanagement. Though no cause has been confirmed, this tragedy may have been prevented if there had been proper management and observation of the utility poles. 

This video covers the beginning of the wildfire that was not yet extinguished during this newscast. A reporter live from the Central Disaster and Safety Measures Headquarters in Goseong county speaks on the suspected cause, damage thus far, and the areas still in danger. 

Sources

JPSS SSEC. (2019, April 5). Satellite-based Disaster Outreach Coordinator (SDOC). 4 April 2019 wildfires in South Korea. Retrieved December 7, 2022, from https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/jpss-sdoc/posts/4-april-2019-south-korea-wildfires/4-april-2019-wildfires-in-south-korea/

KBS World. (2019, April 19). Electric arc believed to have caused Goseong Mountain fires. Retrieved December 8, 2022, from http://world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=144583

NST. (2019, April 5). Firefighters contain most of S.Korean wildfires; hundreds evacuated ... Retrieved December 7, 2022, from https://www.nst.com.my/world/2019/04/476604/firefighters-contain-most-skorean-wildfires-hundreds-evacuated

Volvo. (2020, June 20). Goseong rises from the ashes of a devastating wildfire. Retrieved December 8, 2022, from https://www.volvoce.com/global/en/building-tomorrow/building-tomorrow-project/building-tomorrow-project/goseong-rises-from-the-ashes/

Figure 1. Illustrates affected areas surrounding Indonesia
 and depicts those most devastated by the disaster. 

The Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004

Following Christmas day, on December 26, 2004, an undersea fault in the Indian Ocean released its pressure in the form of a 9.1 magnitude earthquake which would send waves with tremendous heights to the shores of Sumatra. “According to USGS scientists, the sea floor near the earthquake was uplifted several meters and the displacement of water above the sea floor triggered the tsunami.” (USGS, 2014) The tsunami reached heights of up to 100 feet and quickly engulfed the coastal city. Sumatra Island had a population of around 320,000 before disaster struck. This tragedy resulted in the                                                                                       loss of over 100,000 people. 

Figure 2. Reveals extraordinary damage through the
flattening of infrastructure across the land.

The speed at which this tsunami traveled made it virtually impossible to prepare for destruction. “The waves stripped vegetation from mountain sides hundreds of meters inland, capsized freighters and threw boats into trees.” (Rodgers, 2014) The waves moved at high velocity, up to 500 miles per hour as it moved to hit Thailand where another 5,400 people would perish. The disaster would not cease here. The tsunami re-routed toward the southeastern coast of India and affected the city of Chennai, killing 10,000. The nation of Sri Lanka would be devastated by destruction and death as well, with the numbers reaching 30,000. The tsunami would work tirelessly to demolish a final location eight hours later in South Africa. Up to 13 billion dollars in damages were accounted for after the disaster. (Senesac, 2019) Those who were not killed or severely injured by the tsunami became homeless or displaced. Numbers in this range reach 426,800 people. The intense devastation is largely due to the earthquake that triggered the violent tsunami. The undersea fault happened to be what is called a “megathrust” fault, where “heavy oceanic plates subduct beneath lighter continental plates.” One could compare the power of this quake to the release of thousands of atomic bombs at once. (Roos, 2018) The earthquake was so intense that it caused a change in the rotation of the Earth. 

Figure 3. Demonstrates the pressure of the earthquake and
the formation of tsunami waves.

The disastrous event that took place in 2004 was almost inevitable. The people of these lands had no natural warning or official warning that would give them a chance to prepare and survive the implications. These locations did not have a history with tsunamis either, so it was entirely unexpected. Though much could not be done to mitigate the impacts before disaster struck, the experience allowed for greater understanding for the future. The Hyogo Framework for Action was put into place weeks after the tsunami hit. Representatives from 168 nations worked to enhance “global cooperation for disaster risk reduction.” Advanced technology efforts have also been enacted to better alert countries for hazard risk and potential, such as ocean floor earthquake sensors. NOAA took immediate action to improve forecasting efforts. They increased the number of DART buoys in oceans as well. Today, “current forecasting models can now predict the arrival time, duration, height, and extent of flooding in specific locations for a tsunami.” (Reid, 2020)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYdg6CoRfQg

The attached clip shows live footage from an individual on the scene of the 2004 tsunami. Viewers can see the violent waves surging onto the coast, wreaking havoc on everything in its path. 

Works Cited

USGS. (2014, December 23). Indian Ocean Tsunami Remembered - Scientists Reflect on the 2004 Indian Ocean that Killed Thousands. Indian Ocean Tsunami Remembered - Scientists reflect on the 2004 Indian Ocean that killed thousands | U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved November 1, 2022, from https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/indian-ocean-tsunami-remembered-scientists-reflect-2004-indian-ocean-killed

Rodgers, L. (2014, December 25). Indian Ocean tsunami: Then and Now. BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2022, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30034501

 Senesac, E. (2019, December 23). The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004: A Wake-Up Call. National Weather Service Heritage. Retrieved November 1, 2022, from https://vlab.noaa.gov/web/nws-heritage/-/the-banda-aceh-tsunami-of-2004-a-wake-up-call

Roos, D. (2018, October 2). The 2004 tsunami wiped away towns with 'mind-boggling' destruction. History.com. Retrieved November 1, 2022, from https://www.history.com/news/deadliest-tsunami-2004-indian-ocean

Reid, K. (2020, June 4). 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami: Facts, faqs, and how to help. World Vision. Retrieved November 1, 2022, from https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2004-indian-ocean-earthquake-tsunami-facts 

Images Cited

Figure 1:

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coolgeography.co.uk%2FGCSE%2FAQA%2FRestless%2520Earth%2FTsunamis%2FTsunamis.htm&psig=AOvVaw3nndGq9xeXV9Jt0cJybxnJ&ust=1667448547132000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCODrkrjWjvsCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAU

Figure 2: https://www.history.com/.image/ar_16:9%2Cc_fill%2Ccs_srgb%2Cfl_progressive%2Cg_faces:center%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_768/MTU4ODY0MzU5NDQxODM1ODEz/1-tsunami-51915383.jpg

Figure 3: 

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.istockphoto.com%2Fillustrations%2Findian-ocean-tsunami&psig=AOvVaw0Mcfy3TjhHUFMGdDGPlPKd&ust=1667448782465000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCLjKkqbWjvsCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

 

 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée

This map shows the island of Martinique and the eruption of Mt. Pelee (Northwest). It shows the range that the lava travelled, showing a few towns including the major city of St. Pierre to the southwest of the volcano.
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-map-showing-the-eruption-of-mount-pelee-martinique-1902-artist-unknown-17640201.html

    On May 8th, 1902, the volcano Mount Pelée had the deadliest eruption of the 20th century, killing 30,000 people in the process. Mount Pelée is a stratovolcano located at the Northwest corner of the Caribbean island of Martinique at 14.809°N, 61.166°W. It has a peak with an elevation of 4,500 feet high. Mount Pelée was a historically active volcano known as the mountain of fire by locals before the island was settled and claimed by the French. So by 1902, the people living in the village of St. Pierre and surrounding area had experienced minor activity from the volcano before. There was a small eruption on May 2nd which had smaller explosions and lit up the night skies. This smaller eruption killed some birds flying and fish were found dead, but people did not evacuate the town of St. Pierre due to both reassurances from the government and because around 50 years before there was an eruption of similar magnitude which had no effect on the town. As the days passed, the volcano continued to show signs of activity, with things like lahars coming down the mountain and destroying sugar plantations and flames coming from the peak of the volcano. Finally early in the morning on May, 8th, Mount Pelée had a violent eruption which sent a pyroclastic flow of rock, ash, and superheated gas straight to the village of St. Pierre. The flow, traveling at around 100 miles per hour, hit the city and absolutely devastated it. Buildings were leveled to the ground and all of the ~30,000 people in the village were killed except for two survivors. It is believed that most were killed by the initial impact, while others had their throats and lungs seared by the superheated gas of the pyroclastic flow. In addition to those in the village, there were around 30 ships in the harbor, most of which capsized or burned, taking most of their crew with them. The eruption left the city burning, with the ash igniting the rubble and the countless barrels of rum stored there. 

The coastline of St. Pierre after the eruption, showing the buildings and still smoking village.
https://www.americangeosciences.org/static/earth/benchmarks-may-8-1902-deadly-eruption-mount-pelee/Saint_Pierre_YORYM-TA0176_promo.jpg

        

        Not near as much was known about volcanos in the early 1900s as is known now. This eruption was actually the one which led to the knowledge pyroclastic flows existed. Monitoring and activity detection is also much easier today due to the advances in technology. This has to be taken into account when looking into what could have been done to prevent so much damage with this volcano. That being said, this situation was still handled so poorly and ultimately lost many lives which could have been prevented. There are several reasons this eruption killed so many people. Many of the people living in St. Pierre believed that the volcano posed no threat due to the fact that it had shown activity on multiple occasions before, even spitting ash on the city, and had done little real harm. In addition to that, at the time there was an election going on for governor of the island, and the sitting governor was worried that if he evacuated the village, he would lose votes. So he assembled a committee of people to speak to the local newspaper. The committee assured people that there was no threat, and that the town of St. Pierre was perfectly safe. The newspaper then printed the reassurance and distributed it throughout the region. The residents, as well as government officials, assumed as well that lava flows were the only thing to possibly worry about, as there was no prior knowledge of pyroclastic flows. While the town should have been evacuated, it is hard to  This of course was not the case as the village was located right in the path of a pyroclastic flow which destroyed the town. While the town should have been evacuated, it is hard to say that based on their limited knowledge of volcanic eruptions at the time. Although a tragic disaster, geologists and other earth scientists were able to learn a lot about volcanic eruptions from this disaster, and are now aware that volcanic eruptions  are not dangerous solely due to lava flows. If the volcano ever shows activity again, St. Pierre will have hopefully learned from past experience and evacuate in a timely manner, though why the city was built back again right next to an active volcano, I am unsure. 

 

This is an image of modern day St. Pierre with Mt. Pelée sitting quietly behind the village.
https://volcano.si.edu/gallery/photos/GVP-10668.jpg

 

Video: 

    This video provides a history of Mt. Pelee, from its formation to current activity. It explains the events of the May 8th eruption as well as continues on to mention current signs of activity from the volcano. 

Sources:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/volcanic-eruption-buries-caribbean-city

https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/benchmarks-may-8-1902-deadly-eruption-mount-pelee/

http://sci.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Pelee.html

https://www.nsm.buffalo.edu/courses/gly433/pdfPowerPoint/Hanson.pdf

https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=360120

https://volcanofoundation.org/mount-pelee-martinique/

Laki Eruption Iceland 1783-1784

 Introduction

Iceland is known as “the land of ice and fire” (Kleeman, 2020).  Iceland is located on a diverging plate boundary and rests on both the Eurasian plate and the North American plate lines. The country is also located on a mantle plume, or a mass of relatively hot and therefore less dense mantle materials that rise up from the Earth’s mantle towards the surface where it produces volcanism (Kleeman, 2020). These factors mean the island has a significant amount of volcanic activity. It has over thirty active volcanoes, as well as a number of inactive ones (Witze, 2015). One of the most important volcanoes on the island is Laki. An eruption in the late 1700s is still kept in the hearts of many Islanders. 

Figure 1: This map shows the Laki volcano as well as some other volcanic areas around Iceland. 

(Witze & Kanipe, 2014)

Summary

“The flood of fire flowed with the speed of a great swollen river with meltwater on a spring day,...[] Great cliffs and slabs of rock were swept along, tumbling about like large whales swimming, red-hot and glowing.”- Pastor Jón Steingrímsson describes the eruption in 1873 (Bressan, 2015)

On June 8, 1783, the ground ripped open and the Laki fissure released mass amounts of lava. These lava flows lasted for a total of eight months and the effects lingered for years all around the globe (Witze, 2015). The fissure is over 27 kilometers or 16 miles long and released over 14.7cubic kilometers, or (about 3.7 quadrillion gallons, enough to fill 330 feet deep valleys entirely) of lava (Bressan, 2015). 

Figure 2: This picture shows the Laki fissure today. The eruption of 1783-1784 and the massive lava flows created the land as it is today. Today the Laki fissure is a part of the Vatnajökull National Park.

(Kleeman, 2020)

The eruption also produced large amounts of gases and ash. The gases, particularly the fluorine, poisoned the fields, meadows, and ponds, which killed 50% of all the cattle, 79% of the sheep, and 76% of the horses between 1783 and 1785 (Kleeman, 2020). It is estimated that the eruption released over 80 Mt of sulfuric acid aerosol which is 4 times more than El Chichon and 80 times more than Mount St. Helens (Oregon State University, 2010). It lead to a great famine and by 1785, roughly 20 percent of the Icelandic population had perished—from hunger, malnutrition, or diseases (Kleeman, 2020). This event killed over 2 billion people around the world (Disasters, 2015). Throughout the summer of 1783, there was a fog was seen in cities such as London, Paris, Stockholm, Rome, and beyond. People also reported a sour smell in the air, trouble breathing, and plants withering on exposure (Witze, 2015). This haze was reported as far as Syria (Oregon State University, 2010).

Figure 3: The gases released during the eruption created a fog, such as the one seen here. This fog made it hard to see and breathe and was deadly. 

(Crocker, 2021)

 The longevity of this event led to one of the coldest winters on record, leading to famine in many countries. Many scholars believe the effects of climate change caused by the Laki eruption, such as crop failures, helped spark the French Revolution (Bressan, 2015).

Figure 4: This is a famous image of the French Revolution. Famine and extreme weather changes from Laki could have significantly played a role in this revolution. 

(Bauwens, 2011)

Discussion

The Laki disaster is imprinted in the national psyche as a kind of worst-case scenario for what natural disasters can do (Witze, 2015). The country's isolation and the significantly little amount of knowledge about volcanoes meant mitigation efforts were low.  After this event, there was a greater interest in climate science and mitigation efforts. Famous figures such as Ben Franklin noted the atmospheric effects of the eruption (Oregon State University, 2010). Laki put out more lava and more gases than any other eruption in Iceland’s history, except for a 10th-century event that occurred before the country was widely settled (Witze, 2015). The Laki eruption was significant for showing that volcanic eruptions can have impacts on regions far away. This disaster helped researchers to better understand and respond to other disasters (Witze, 2015). This eruption also shows the resiliency of Icelanders. It truly amazes me how they were able to bounce back and become a thriving country again. Today, Iceland’s volcanoes are extremely well monitored and the country's civil-protection service responds almost immediately to any impending eruption. Unlike in 1783, people can sit at home and check the Icelandic Meteorological Office website for the latest news, maps, and predictions of what natural disaster might happen next (Witze, 2015). 

Though the effects of this volcano were devesting, Laki is less well-known than Mount Tambara and other volcanos that have had similar influential eruptions. It makes me wonder why some natural disasters are better known than others. 

Video

This video describes the 1783-1784 Laki eruption and its effects in Iceland and around the world. It explains why this event was one of the most important natural disasters of all time. 

Sources 

Bauwens, J. (2011, September 20). Sciency Thoughts: The dangers of a modern Laki style eruption in Iceland. Sciency Thoughts. http://sciencythoughts.blogspot.com/2011/09/dangers-of-modern-laki-style-eruption.html

Bressan, D. (2015, May 8). This 1783 Volcanic Eruption Changed The Course Of History. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2015/06/08/this-1783-volcanic-eruption-changed-the-course-of-history/?sh=228213a453c8

Crocker, S. (2021, March 5). The Dramatic True Story Of The Laki Volcanic Eruption. Grunge. https://www.grunge.com/348919/the-dramatic-true-story-of-the-laki-volcanic-eruption/

Disasters. (2015). 1783 Iceland Eruption. Youtube. https://youtu.be/_c6Rnqr7W1U

Kleeman, K. (2020, January 13). The Laki Fissure eruption, 1783-1784. Encyclopédie de L’environnement. https://www.encyclopedie-environnement.org/en/society/laki-fissure-eruption-1783-1784/

Oregon State University. (2010, April 14). Laki, Iceland - 1783. Volcano World. https://volcano.oregonstate.edu/laki-iceland-1783

Witze, A. (2015). Island on Fire. Natural Hazards Center. https://hazards.colorado.edu/article/island-on-fire-societal-lessons-from-iceland-s-volcanoes

Witze, A., & Kanipe, J. (2014). Island on fire : the Extraordinary Story of a Forgotten Volcano that Changed the World. Pegasus Books.

Monserrat’ Soufriere Hills Volcanic eruption

 

                                    Figure.1 The Soufriere Hills Volcano in Montserrat (USGS, 2015)

Montserrat is located in the Lesser Antilles volcanic island arc. The arc is caused by the sinking of the Atlantic oceanic lithosphere beneath the Caribbean plate to the west. Montserrat is the summit of a compound volcanic edifice that stretches from 1 km above sea level at Soufri6re Hills Volcano to 700-900 m below sea level, with a basal diameter of around 25-30 km. (Kokelaar, 2002).

A series of eruptions of Montserrat's Soufriere Hills Volcano began in June 1995 and continued through to 1997. It started with phreatic explosions, which were accompanied by seismic activity and significant ground deformation. (Sparks et al., 1998). In 1997, there were two dome collapses – on the 25^th of June and the 21^st of September.

On June 25, at 12.55 p.m., a major and prolonged collapse of the lava dome began, with three large pyroclastic flows overwhelming an area of 4 km2 on the volcano's north and northeast flanks. A widespread ash cloud surge broke out from the third pyroclastic flow on the volcano's northern slope and rushed across Streatham village, climbing 70 metres on Windy Hill at an average rate of around 35 metres per second.

Flows also engulfed Plymouth, the capital city, whose 5,000 residents had been evacuated months before in preparation for such an occurrence (USGS, 2022).

Many houses were destroyed in the pyroclastic flow, and the remaining severely damaged houses were surrounded by thick deposits, but in the surge area, there were thin deposits and little evidence of raised dynamic pressure, while fences around properties remained mostly intact, and utility poles and wires were unharmed by the blast. Nineteen individuals were killed and seven were injured, with six bodies recovered from inside the surge area as the hot cloud pursued them as they fled to their homes. The temperature of the surge was in the 400°C range. (Baxter et al., 2005).

 

Map of Montserrat's southeast shows the Soufrière Hills volcano and regions damaged by pyroclastic flows. (Baxter et al., 2005).

On December 26, 1997, a debris cascade filled much of the White River to within 100 metres of the sea, followed by high-intensity Pyroclastic currents that devastated 10 km2 of southern Montserrat all the way to the sea. Under tremendous internal pressure, the lava dome shattered explosively, and the produced material collapsed under gravity to flow down the southwest flank towards St Patrick's settlement. Approximately 60% of the island was declared dangerous for human occupancy, including the most densely inhabited sections. 92% of the original population of around 10 500 people was evacuated, and many families were relocated twice or three times. At the height of the crisis, in 1997, about 1600 people were housed in rudimentary temporary shelters, and by early 1998, roughly 70% of the island's inhabitants had fled. From March 1998 until November 1999 there was a pause in magma ascent accompanied by reduced seismic activity, substantial degradation of the dome, and considerable degassing with the venting of ash (Kokelaar, 2002).

Despite significantly increased awareness of the hazards of volcanism in the Caribbean region, largely due to the efforts of the Seismic Research Unit in Trinidad, it is clear that the Montserrat governing authorities were unprepared for the Soufriere Hills eruption. Montserrat had reconstructed its critical infrastructure in Plymouth with UK assistance. In 2022, work started on a £28m project funded by the UK and Caribbean Development Bank on a new town and port at Little Bay on the northwest coast of the island (BBC, 2022).

 

Videos:

https://youtu.be/GeghNYm_03A

 

References:

Baxter, P.J. et al. (2005) “The impacts of pyroclastic surges on buildings at the eruption of the Soufri�Re Hills Volcano, Montserrat,” Bulletin of Volcanology, 67(4), pp. 292–313. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-004-0365-7.

Kokelaar, B.P. (2002) “Setting, chronology and consequences of the eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat (1995-1999),” Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 21(1), pp. 1–43. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.mem.2002.021.01.02.

Montserrat profile (2022) BBC News. BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-20256517 (Accessed: October 31, 2022).

Soufrière Hills volcano in Montserrat. (no date) Soufrière Hills volcano in Montserrat. | U.S. Geological Survey. Available at: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/soufri-re-hills-volcano-montserrat (Accessed: November 1, 2022).

Sparks, R.S. et al. (1998) “Magma production and growth of the Lava Dome of the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, West Indies: November 1995 to December 1997,” Geophysical Research Letters, 25(18), pp. 3421–3424. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1029/98gl00639.

Volcano Watch - update on Soufriere Hills, Montserrat (no date) Volcano Watch - Update on Soufriere Hills, Montserrat | U.S. Geological Survey. Available at: https://www.usgs.gov/news/volcano-watch-update-soufriere-hills-montserrat (Accessed: October 31, 2022).

Chile Tsunami, 27 February 2010

Chile earthquake epicenter. 

Shows where the earthquake that 

started the tsunami started at.

(RC, 2011)

    On February 27, 2010 at 3:34 am local time Chile was hit with a M8.8 earthquake, and the earthquake created a tsunami with a wave height of up to 29 meters tall. (Fukuji) The epicenter of the earthquake was located 200 miles from the Chilean capital of Santiago. (Rafferty et al, 2022)

    Eye witnesses stated that in some places the tsunami reached the shores within 12 min after the felt earthquake. (SMS Tsunami) The tsunami did moderate damage in some areas and higher damage in others. Some towns that got hit by the main force of the tsunami had a lot of damage due to the fact that if it was a poorer city that did not have the proper infrastructure to be able to withstand the water; then the town would have very high damage. Some towns were better built and saw less damage overall to the town. They estimated that about 9% of the population in the regions that were affected lost their homes, and the total damage cost of the tsunami and the earthquake was estimated to be around $30 billion dollars. (American Red Cross, 2011) The total death toll for the earthquake and the tsunami was at 525 people and 25 people were missing but presumed dead, and out of the 550, 124 died as a direct result of the tsunami. (SMS Tsunami) The tsunami wave reached across the pacific in places like, "Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia), New Zealand, the Kuril Islands (Russia), and in the United States in California and Hawaii, and caused minor damage in San Diego, California and in Japan." (NOAA, 2022)

After math of the tsunami and this shows
how far up it was flooded, and how much it
moved the boats at the harbor. (Raedle, 2011) 

    One reason many people died was due to the fact of the time of day the tsunami hit. Since it was at 3:34 am it made it more difficult because of it being dark and the panic of everything may have escalated. With that it was reported that one of the main concerns was the lack of education of tsunamis not for the people living there but of the tourists that were in campgrounds nearby, and 45 people died because they were camping at the mouth of a river that had no evacuation plan for that area. (Fukuji) The people living in the areas that were affected felt like they were prepared as they ever could have been because they were educated on what to do and the police and fire responders were well trained and assisted in warning and evacuation of the cities. (Fukuji) A important action that was shortly dealt with in the years after was the 8 important figures in oceanic services and heads of emergency offices got charged with negligence charges because they ignored the early warnings and failed to notify coastal regions about the coming danger. Now they have new rules that mandate training and proper methods on how to warn places. (Rafferty et al, 2022) Other things that could have helped would have been to have replaced buildings that were not up to code for the tsunami and the earthquake that could have helped more people have a place to be safe in the future.

This picture shows the damage that was caused by
the tsunami in Chile. (Boston, 2010)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EBgGsmKXD-k

This video shows the tsunami wave that originated in Chile and how it moved across the pacific ocean. It also shows what the wave height was when it hit different locations throughout the pacific. 

American Red Cross Multi-Disciplinary Team, 2011, “Report on the 2010 Chilean earthquake and tsunami response.” U.S. Geological Survey, v. 1.1, 68 p., https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1053/. Accessed 27 October 2022.

Fukuji, Tammy. “ 27 February 2010, MW 8.8, Off Central Chile.” International Tsunami Information Center, http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1667&catid=1444&Itemid=1444. Accessed 27 October, 2022.

NOAA, “Tsunami Historical Series: Chile - 2010.” Science On a Sphere, 24 Aug. 2022, https://sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/tsunami-historical-series-chile-2010/. Accessed 27 October 2022.

Rafferty, John P. and Pallardy, Richard. "Chile earthquake of 2010". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Feb. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/event/Chile-earthquake-of-2010. Accessed 27 October 2022.

RC, Javier. “Chile Earthquake epicenter.” Economy to Improve Quality of Life, 1 Mar. 2010, https://collabmarket.org/2010/03/01/informacion-terremoto-chile-feb-2010/ Accessed 27 October 2022.

Raedle, Joe. “Talcahuano, Chile: earthquake”, Encyclopædia Britannica, March 11, 2011,https://www.britannica.com/place/Maule#/media/1/1669019/261063 Accessed 27 October 2022.

SMS Tsunami. “Maule, 2010 Chile Earthquake and Tsunami.” SMS Tsunami Warning, https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-chile-2010#.Y1rPDXbMK3B. Accessed 27 October 2022.

The Boston Globe. “Earthquake in Chile.” Boston.com, , 27 Feb. 2010, http://archive.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/02/earthquake_in_chile.html. Accessed 27 October 2022.

Novarupta Eruption 1912

 The Novarupta Eruption of 1912

The Novarupta Eruption began on June 6th, 1912 and lasted about 60 hours2. It occurred on the Alaska Peninsula and erupted from a Plinian pyroclastic vent with a plug dome3.  It was the largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century. It is a unique eruption due to the three different magma types that were involved in the eruption. The three different magma types were rhyolite, dacite, and andesite, which all contain different amounts of silica6. This led to the magma swirling together and creating a pumice that had black and white bands6. The eruption was originally thought to have occurred at Mount Katmai. However, years after the occurrence of the event, it was shown that due to the collapse of Mount Katmai before the eruption, all of the lava was pushed underground and created pressure at the Novarupta vent, which is ultimately what ended up exploding6. Luckily, the impact on the human environment was fairly minimal. The population closest to the eruption was over 100 kilometers away and consisted of 667 individuals. There were no fatalities, but there was damage done to buildings. Up to a foot of ash landed in the town of Kodiak, where roofs collapsed and buildings were destroyed by ash flows 6. There were also buildings that burned after being struck by lightning from the ash cloud, and the water in Kodiak was undrinkable6. However the effects on the physical environment were catastrophic. This eruption resulted in what is known as the “Valley of 10,000 Smokes”6. Not only did the eruption affect the physical environment in the local area, it actually changed the climate of the northern hemisphere in 1912. The fine dust from the volcano was carried into the atmosphere and created a haze, which led to an unusually cool summer that year2. Because of this prolonged cooling period, the growth of trees and other plants5.

This is an image of the dome that caps the Novarupta vent. Photo by Tom Miller (Alaska Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey).

Due to the little impact that the eruption had on the human environment, not much mitigation can necessarily be done to help solve very many problems. The Novarupta vent is far enough away from significant human civilization that there is not much to change in that aspect. Individuals that were in the zone that had the most tephra fall were rescued before they suffered severe consequences4 . The most damage that was done was the collapse of roofs as mentioned previously. Reinforcing structures would allow for more stable roofs and less building damage. Making an evacuation plan for populations who are within the range of fallout from the volcano would also be a good way to mitigate possible future incidents, however there has been little to no action at the Novarupta vent since the 1912 eruption.The site has been of scientific significance since its eruption. It was one of the 5 largest in history7. It created the Valley of 10,000 Smokes, which was the large volume of pyroclastic flows that had settled on land7 and about 50 earthquakes nearby led to a collapsed caldera, one of the few in volcanic history1.

This graphic shows a comparison of large volcanic eruptions and their erupted magma volume. Photo by Fierstein (2012, National Park Service)

This image shows the Novarupta Dome and the surrounding volcanoes and geologic formations (Photo by NPS).

This video is a summary of the Novarupta Eruption of 1912. It uses pictures and graphics to explain what happened and the process by which the eruption occurred. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EA-Av50wkqU)

 Sources 

1. Fierstein, W. H. and J. (n.d.). The novarupta-katmai eruption of 1912-largest eruption of the Twentieth Century: Centennial perspectives. USGS Publications Warehouse. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1791 /

2. The impact of the 1912 Novarupta/Katmai eruption on the Pacific Northwest. The Impact of the 1912 Novarupta/Katmai Eruption on the Pacific Northwest | U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://www.usgs.gov/news/impact-1912-novaruptakatmai-eruption-pacific-northwest 

3. Novarupta description and information. novarupta - Introduction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/volcinfo.php?volcname=novarupta 

4. Novarupta reported activity. Novarupta - Historic eruptions. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/activity.php?volcname=Novarupta&page=impact&eruptionid=456 

5. U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Effect of the novarupta (1912) eruption on forests of southcentral Alaska: Clues from the Tree Ring Record (U.S. National Park Service). National Parks Service. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/articles/aps-v11-i1-c12.htm#:~:text=The%20eruption%20of%20Novarupta%20on,1998). 

6. U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). The Great Eruption of 1912 (U.S. National Park Service). National Parks Service. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/articles/aps-v11-i1-c2.htm 

7. U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Valley of ten thousand smokes and the 1912 novarupta-katmai eruption. National Parks Service. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/katm/learn/nature/valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes.htm#:~:text=Scientific%20Significance,largest%20eruptions%20in%20recorded%20history.