The Great Fire of 1919

 

The Great Fire of 1919 – Lanc La Biche, Canada

Lanc La Biche was an attractive place to place settlements, as it had great soil on the forest-prairie edge that those who would like to farm would value highly that far up north. Though another industry became commonplace there, as logging began to take hold of the area due to its large forests. Though these two industries are likely what started the wildfire that scarred Lanc La Biche for years to come. It is unclear what exactly caused the fire, but the main suspects are some combination of the logging practices of the area not storing lumber properly, farmers burning brush for farmland, and the drought brought on that spring. Whatever the cause may be, the result was a fire of dangerous proportions. Many saw the fire first as what was thought to be an eclipse, though it was later realized to be the fire’s glow and smoke. The fire was quick, too fast to outrun, and constantly changed direction which made it very dangerous as it passed through the boreal forest as it covered the community in an all-consuming soke (Murphy, Peter, 2015). News of the fire did not spread quickly as telephone lines were already consumed by the fire, meaning that many people had to fend for themselves for a long time. Some attempted to choke out the fire using backfires, though this ended up feeding into the fire. The fire reached approximately 200km and caused $200,000 in property damage and at least 11 dead (Murphy, Peter, 2015), as well as destroying the forest that a very large portion of the population lived off of, annihilating the economy.

Lanc La Biche was a prime target for a wildfire on a deadly scale as it has many aspects that sets up for a disastrous fire. First being the boreal forest due to its high level of timber, debris, peat, moss, shrubs, and grass. Then there is the main industries in the area giving more fuel to the fire in a very literal sense. This can be coupled with the occasionally hot and dry springs, especially for Canada’s standard. Then the fact that the very buildings are made of wood makes it clear that a fire is very likely to happen, and when it did, it would be disastrous. This makes it all the worse that people were aware of the dangers that fires could cause, as older settlers had experienced other smaller fires in the past, but their only real defense was fire rangers and their personal attempts and fire preventions rather than something issued by the government. Though, the most frightening aspect of this story isn’t the lack of preparedness or the damage it caused, but instead the fact that it is known by some as “the forgotten fire” as those outside of Lanc La Biche rarely remember it’s occurrence (Lewis, James, 2016). This is concerning as this fire is one that caused great damage to people, places and the economy but could have had better ways to deal with it before this level of tragedy hit. But instead of learning from this experience and using it as a cautionary tale and a reason to improved answers to wildfires, they instead forget about its existence, which may mean that they will be unprepared for when it happens again.

Ranker, Eric Luis, 2021 https://www.ranker.com/list/worst-wildfires-in-history/eric-vega [ID  an ongoing wildfire with billowing smoke clouds] This image was chosen to show the fire traveling through the boreal forest.

World Press, Merle Masse, 2016 https://merlemassie.wordpress.com/2015/05/19/the-great-fire-of-1919/ [ID a giant smoke cloud covering the horizon] This image is to show the scale of the fire.

Cottage Life, Stacy McLeod, 2014 https://cottagelife.com/outdoors/the-most-devastating-forest-fires-in-canadian-history/ [ID people rendered homeless due to the wildfire] This image is to show the damage caused by the fire (and also because so few images relating to this fire exist).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CrDi0AXASMc

This video discusses how wildfires in Canada start. It then relates this knowledge to how people can prepare for wildfires in the future. This video was chosen because I could not find a single video about the fire I chose and this video still relates to the concept.

 

Forest History, (spring/fall 2015), The Great Fire of 1919: People and a Shared Firestorm in Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada, by Peter J. Murphy, Cordy Tymstra, and Myrle Masse, retrieved November 27^th, 2024 from https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2015_GreatFireof1919.pdf

Forest History, (May 6^th, 2016), The Fort McMurray Fire and the Great Fire of 1919, by James Lewis, retrieved November 27^th, 2024 from https://foresthistory.org/the-fort-mcmurray-fire-and-the-great-fire-of-1919/

Cottage Life, (July 17^th, 2014), The Most Devastating Forest Fires in Canadian History, by Stacy Mcleod, retrieved November 27^th, 2024 from https://cottagelife.com/outdoors/the-most-devastating-forest-fires-in-canadian-history/

World Press, (May 19^th, 2015), The Great Fire of 1919, by Merle Masse, retrieved November 28^th, 2024 from https://merlemassie.wordpress.com/2015/05/19/the-great-fire-of-1919/

Calgary Herald, (May 9^th, 2023), The Most Tragic Wildfires to Scorch The Prairies, by Monica Zurowski, retrieved November 28^th, 2024 from https://calgaryherald.com/feature/tragic-wildfires-history-canadian-prairies

Hurricane Andrew

Map of Hurricane Andrew's Path. This map was chosen to show the specific areas impacted during different phases of the storm. (Duginski).

 Hurricane Andrew was one of the most destructive hurricanes in the United States’ history, and is one of the only Category 5 hurricanes that the United States has experienced. On August 14th, 1992, Andrew began as a tropical wave off the coast of Africa, moving west across the Atlantic Ocean (NOAA). As the wave moved through the Atlantic, it passed through a high pressure area which pushed it quickly towards the Cape Verde Islands. Convection and rotation began to occur on August 16th, denoting a change to a tropical depression (Rafferty). The following day, on August 17th, Andrew collided with an easterly vertical wind shear which then caused the tropical depression to become a tropical storm (Rappaport).

Image of Hurricane Andrew moving towards Florida. This image was chose to show the scope of the storm. (Rafferty).

Andrew began to creep closer to the coast over the following days from August 17th to August 20th, building up speed and energy. On August 21th, Andrew turned westward and sped up, becoming a hurricane on August 22th. At this point, Hurricane Andrew was a category 4 hurricane. As it developed into a hurricane, it traveled for the Bahamas, passing through them on August 23rd and August 24th. Later on August 24th, Hurricane Andrew hit Florida. While it was categorized as a category 4 hurricane at this time, it was later upgraded to be a category 5 hurricane due to the high wind speeds and damage. The hurricane continued over the southeastern coast, slowing down to a category 3 hurricane as it hit Louisiana. After landfall in Louisiana, the storm disappeared within 24 hours, on August 28th, but provided more than ten inches of rain in some locations (NOAA’s National Weather Service).

Images of the destruction caused by Hurricane Andrew. This image was chosen to show how destructive the storm was on local communities. (Rafferty).

Hurricane Andrew was a horrible disaster, which killed 65 people, destroyed more than 63,000 homes, and involved the evacuation of more than 1.1 million people. While it is difficult to contend with forces as destructive as a category 5 hurricane, FEMA took four days to get relief into certain regions (Rafferty). A quicker response very easily could have saved people's lives. However, the large evacuation efforts were largely successful and impressive, as 1.2 million people evacuated. In terms of infrastructure, many buildings were destroyed, but with a hurricane of this magnitude, that is not unexpected. It is shown that many of the masonry buildings and wood modular buildings performed relatively well in the face of this hurricane, but there was significant damage due to debris breaching buildings, as well as internal air pressure being built up within buildings (Federal Insurance Administration). Many structures were destroyed, and in the future, steps could be taken to make more structures from masonry or wooden modular structures due to their performance in the wake of the hurricane. At the time, Hurricane Andrew was the most expensive hurricane in United States history, but now ranks behind several more recent hurricanes. Overall, there is very little that can be done to mitigate the damage of the hurricane besides ensuring that they were buildings of the best quality. While there was little to be done to stop the hurricane, there could have been improvements in disaster management. The evacuation was exceptional, however a four day response time must be improved. There must be explicit plans in place in case of a disaster, even one of this magnitude, in order to save every life possible. 

This video illustrates the effects of the hurricane firsthand, showing the beginning stages of the storm. The high wind and debris shown is not yet the worst of the storm, but this does visually contextualize the force of a category 5 hurricane.

References

Duginski, P. (2019, August 30). Will hurricane dorian follow in Andrew’s devastating footsteps? Los Angeles Times. 

https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-08-30/will-hurricane-dorian-follow-in-andrews-devastating-footsteps 

Federal Insurance Administration. Building Performance: Hurricane Andrew In Flordia. Federal Emergency Management Agency. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-08/fia22_complete.pdf

NOAA. (2022, August 22). Hurricane Andrew at 30: A look back from above. National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news/hurricane-andrew-30-look-back-above 

NOAA’s National Weather Service. (2024, August 28). Hurricane Andrew 1992. National Weather Service. https://www.weather.gov/lch/andrew 

Rafferty, J. P. (2024, October 9). Hurricane Andrew. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Hurricane-Andrew 

Rappaport, E. (1998, December 25). Preliminary report hurricane andrew 16 - 28 August, 1992. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admindistration. https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew.html 

U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Hurricane Andrew (1992). National Parks Service. https://www.nps.gov/articles/hurricane-andrew-1992.htm 

Typhoon Rai

 

This is a natural-color image of Typhoon Rai on
 the afternoon of December 16, 2021 (NASA 2021).

Mt. Unzen, Japan, 1792 Volcanic Eruption

 Mt. Unzen, Japan, 1792 Volcanic Eruption

      In 1792, Mt. Unzen, a Composite volcano near Shimabara, Nagasaki, erupted on the island of Kyushu. This series of eruptions led to a destructive landslide and tsunami, with the death toll estimated at 15,000 people, making it the most deadly volcanic eruption in Japan's eruption (Britannica, 2023). Mount Unzen is part of the Nankai Volcanic Arc and has a summit of 1,483 meters (Smithsonian, 2024).

    The following information comes from the Unzen Restoration Office. The volcanic event is estimated to have begun in November of 1791 and comprised of 4 stages, preceding earthquake swarms reaching a seismic activity of about 5-6 magnitude.  The second stage comprised four eruptions starting in February 1792 and ending in the following March: the Fugenshi-Mae, Anasako-Tani, Hachinokubo, and Furuyake-Kashira. Followed by a lava flow at Shin'yake coming from the top of Anasako-Tani, the lava flow had an average velocity of 30-50m/day with a lava volume of about 20 million m³, which reached about 0.5km to houses. Various other phenomena accompanied these eruptions, such as a carbonated spring forming at Kureisibaru in Mie-village, new smoke from Oshiga-Tani, and new cracks forming from Hachino-Kubo to Furuyake-Kashira.  The third stage was followed by an earthquake of magnitude 5-6 on April 21, which deemed the Shimabara-Sangatsusaku earthquake as two or three large fissures that formed in the town of Shimabara castle. A landslide in the Kusunoki-Daira occurred between Mayu-Yama and Ariake Baye, which resulted in the groundwater level rising abnormally at Imamura.  The fourth stage was followed by the Shimabara-Shiatsusaku earthquake and the collapse of the Mayu-Yama sector. The earthquake was estimated to be a magnitude 6.4 and occurred on May 21. The sector (Figure 1) collapsed, and huge amounts of debris and rocks rushed down into Ariake Bay, generating a large tsunami that killed an estimated 15,000 people. (Unzen Restoration Office, 2002). 

    

Figure 1: Mayuyama landslide before and after (Higaki, 2023)

 

Image 2: Mt. Mauyama Landslide Scarp (https://www.usgs.gov)

Video 1: Simulates the tsunami that was created by the landslide caused by Mayuyama collapsing (Youtube)

Hurricane Gustav - September 1st, 2008

 Hurricane Gustav

Time: August 25 - September 3, 2008

Location: Gulf Coast of the United States; affecting Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas

Figure 1. This image shows the direct path that Hurricane Gustav took towards the United States.

https://www.weather.gov/lix/gustav2008.

Summary of the Event:

Hurricane Gustav, a category 4 storm, was a powerful hurricane that hit the Gulf Coast in 2008. Gustave formed in the Atlantic Ocean on August 25, 2008 and quickly intensified as it moved west, making landfall on August 31, 2024 near Cocodrie, Louisiana. The hurricane’s strength was eye opening, as it threatened areas that were previously hit from Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (National Hurricane Center). Gustav’s winds reached up to 150 mph, causing flooding, storm surges, and extensive damage to infrastructure (CNN). 

The physical environment experienced destruction from the storm’s winds and heavy rainfall. Coastal areas were underwater due to storm surges, particularly in Louisiana and Mississippi. The storm destroyed trees, damaged power lines, and caused significant flooding in both urban and rural areas. The most severely impacted areas from the hurricane included the bayous and coastal parishes of Louisiana, as well as parts of southern Mississippi and Texas (FEMA). 

The economic damage was estimated at $8 billion dollars, with damage to homes, businesses, and vital infrastructure (USA Today). Power outages affected millions, and recovery efforts were made towards both the scale of the destruction and the number of displaced people. The storm’s impact was somewhat mitigated due to good evacuation efforts and strengthened levee systems in New Orleans, as a direct result of lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina (New York Times).

Figure 2. This image shows the evacuation efforts from the AMC for humanitarian relief.

https://www.jbcharleston.jb.mil/News/Press-Releases/Article/122587/amc-supporting-hurricane-gustav-evacuation-efforts-in-louisiana-texas/

Discussion of the Importance, Implications, or Consequences: 

The importance of Hurricane Gustav was in both the demonstration of both the vulnerabilities and resilience of the Gulf Coast in the face of natural disasters. One of the key implications was the focus on evacuation procedures and public safety measures. Unlike Katrina, where the failure to evacuate and inadequate emergency response led to catastrophic loss of life, Gustav’s effects were less devastating partly due to better preparedness (FEMA). The storm prompted widespread evacuations, and many people left their homes ahead of the hurricane’s arrival. However, despite these precautions, the storm still inflicted significant economic damage (National Hurricane Center). One of the main consequences of Gustave was the strain it placed on the region's recovery efforts. Hurricane Gustav hit shortly before the third anniversary of Hurricane Katrina, reminding residents of the fragile nature of their infrastructure and community (New York Times). Recovery was made more difficult by the combined effects of the storm surge, flooding, and power outages, as well as the ongoing rebuilding efforts from previous hurricanes. 

Mitigation efforts could have been in many ways including such as enhancing flood protection systems further and more disaster response mechanisms. Although New Orleans’ levee systems had been strengthened after Katrina, many smaller communities along the Gulf Coast remained highly vulnerable. A better warning system, as well as improved emergency response infrastructure, would have helped to minimize property damage and casualties. Investing in more sustainable, hurricane-resistant building materials and strategies for rebuilding could also have reduced long-term impacts on homes and businesses (CNN).

Figure 3. This image shows the destruction and flooding caused from Hurricane Gustav.

https://www.ocregister.com/2008/09/01/hurricane-gustav-hits-gulf-coast/

Eyewitness Video:

The video contains footage of Hurricane Gustav. This video shows the damage that the hurricane caused to Louisiana and the times that the eye was over New Orleans.

Works Cited:

National Weather Service. "Hurricane Gustav Maximum Wind Gusts - September 1, 2008." National Weather Service Lake Charles, LA, NOAA, https://www.weather.gov/lch/gustavwinds. 

Isidore, Chris. "Hurricane Gustav Damage Estimated at $20 Billion." CNN Money, 2 Sept. 2008, https://money.cnn.com/2008/09/02/news/economy/gustav_estimates/index.htm. 

Cave, Damien. "Gustav Lashes Louisiana, But New Orleans Spared." The New York Times, 1 Sept. 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/01/world/americas/01iht-storm.4.15806303.html. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency. Preliminary Damage Assessment Report: Hurricane Gustav, FEMA-1786-DR-LA. FEMA, 2008, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-09/PDAReport_FEMA-1786-DR-LA.pdf. 

Hurricane Camille - August 17, 1969

 Morgan, L. (2019, August 17). Hurricane Camille: Monster storm devastated Gulf Coast 50 years ago today. Al. https://www.al.com/hurricane/2019/08/hurricane-camille-monster-storm-devastated-gulf-coast-50-years-ago-today.html

 Hurricane Camille was one of the most powerful and destructive hurricanes to hit the United States in the 20th century. Forming over the Caribbean on August 14, 1969, Camille intensified rapidly as it moved toward the Gulf of Mexico, reaching Category 5 status with sustained winds of up to 190 mph and a minimum central pressure of 900 millibars. On August 17, it made landfall near Waveland, Mississippi, producing an unprecedented storm surge estimated between 24 and 28 feet. The hurricane severely impacted the physical environment, destroying coastal towns, causing erosion along the beaches, and demolishing buildings and infrastructure with its powerful winds and surges. Inland flooding from torrential rains also led to landslides, particularly in Virginia, where flash floods swept away entire communities.

Dale M.

Bill Harvey, Hattiesburg American. (2019, August 17). 50 years after Hurricane Camille: “This is my story.” Mississippi Clarion Ledger. https://www.hattiesburgamerican.com/story/news/local/2019/08/17/50-years-after-hurricane-camille-this-my-story-biloxi-mississippi/2000099001/

    The human impact was equally devastating. Camille claimed around 259 lives, injured thousands, and left tens of thousands homeless. In addition to the direct loss of life, the hurricane resulted in severe economic costs, with damages totaling $1.42 billion (approximately $11 billion in 2023 adjusted for inflation). Many residents in Mississippi’s coastal areas were forced to rebuild from scratch, with some towns taking decades to recover fully. Camille also prompted widespread evacuation reforms and raised awareness about the need for better hurricane preparedness (Hearn, 2004; Sullivan, 2019).

Brumfield, The News Leader. (2017, September 3). Unparalleled destruction of Hurricane Camille in 1969. The News Leader. https://www.newsleader.com/story/news/history/2017/09/03/unparalleled-destruction-hurricane-camille-1969/629783001/

    Hurricane Camille underscored the limitations of hurricane forecasting and disaster preparedness at the time, especially in understanding storm surge impacts. Camille’s storm surge, one of the highest on record, highlighted the importance of accurate surge prediction and evacuation protocols. One implication of Camille was the increased investment in meteorological research, which led to the development of more sophisticated storm-tracking technology, early warning systems, and advanced flood modeling. As a result of the devastation, U.S. emergency management policies evolved to focus more on preventative infrastructure, such as seawalls and flood barriers, and community education on evacuation procedures.

    To mitigate similar impacts in the future, actions could include stricter building codes in hurricane-prone areas, mandating elevated structures to withstand storm surges, and improved emergency response coordination between federal, state, and local authorities. Community-level disaster education and mandatory evacuation orders could also be reinforced to protect human lives. As Camille demonstrated, understanding the hurricane’s physical parameters is crucial, but ensuring comprehensive disaster planning and public readiness is just as essential (Knabb et al., 2011).

 August 17, 1969: Hurricane Camille makes landfall

Sources

1. Hearn, P. (2004). Hurricane Camille: Monster Storm of the Gulf Coast. Louisiana State University Press.

2. Sullivan, B. (2019). “Remembering Hurricane Camille, 50 Years Later.” Weather Underground. Retrieved from https://www.wunderground.com/cat5camille

3. Knabb, R. D., Rhome, J. R., & Brown, D. P. (2011). The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts). NOAA/NWS/National Hurricane Center.

4. U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). “Hurricane Camille 1969 Storm Surge.” Retrieved from https://www.usgs.gov

5. Gulf Coast News. (2019). “Hurricane Camille 50th Anniversary.” Gulf Coast News. Retrieved from https://www.gulfcoastnews.com

April 27–30, 2014 Tornado Outbreak

    From April 27 to April 30, 2014, a powerful tornado outbreak moved across the United States, producing nearly 84 tornadoes in multiple states, including Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, and parts of Iowa, Oklahoma, and North Carolina (NOAA, 2014). Fueled by atmospheric instability and Gulf moisture, the outbreak included several EF3 and EF4 tornadoes, which lead to widespread and costly destruction to homes and infrastructure as well as loss of life. The hardest-hit areas were Arkansas, Mississippi, and Alabama, where tornadoes devastated communities, flattened homes, overturned vehicles, and uprooted trees (CNN, 2014). 

A Cross Section Showing Debris Lofted Nearly 15,000 Feet Near Vilonia (Faulkner County) NWS

 In Vilonia, Arkansas, an EF4 tornado caused extensive damage, leaving the area in ruins and claiming multiple lives (NWS, 2014). In Louisville, Mississippi, the town’s hospital and numerous homes were destroyed by another EF4 tornado, resulting in tragic casualties (NOAA, 2014). The human impact was massive: 35 lives were lost, hundreds were injured, and thousands were displaced as entire communities had to evacuate and abandon damaged or destroyed homes (The Weather Channel, 2014). 

Home destroyed by EF4 Tornado in Louisville, Mississippi (NWS)

     The economic impact was severe as well, with the destruction of homes, businesses, and infrastructure totaling hundreds of millions of dollars in damages.(NCEI, 2014). In particular, the town of Vilonia, Arkansas, saw widespread devastation, with homes flattened and key services disrupted (NCEI, 2014). The National Climatic Data Center (NCEI) reported that Arkansas faced a total of approximately $138 million in damages due to the tornado outbreak, with additional losses in other impacted states, such as Alabama and Mississippi, pushing the total economic toll to over $1 billion (NCEI, 2014) The 2014 tornado outbreak stresses the critical need for preparedness in tornado-prone areas. Early warning systems from the National Weather Service provided advance notice in many areas, which likely saved lives. Unfortunately, the sheer intensity and quick formation of some tornadoes left little time for response in certain areas, including Vilonia, Arkansas; Louisville, Mississippi; Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Chattanooga, Tennessee; and Jackson, Mississippi (NWS, 2014; CNN, 2014). 

   

      The rapid formation of tornadoes along with the occurrence of severe storms intensified the disaster’s impact. In the article Double Danger: The Impact of Tornadoes and Severe Storms

Safe Room Considerations (FEMA: Taking Shelter from the Storm pg 43)

 

, such multi-threat events can overwhelm communities, as residents are not only coping with tornadoes but also facing dangers from hail, lightning, and flooding, which compounds the overall hazard (NOAA, 2014).These threats point out the need for effective multi-hazard emergency planning, which addresses not only tornadoes but also associated severe weather risks. Strengthening building codes in high-risk regions could help reduce fatalities and injuries in future tornado outbreaks. Enhanced structural resilience, such as using reinforced concrete, steel framing, and impact-resistant roofing materials, is key for weathering high-intensity winds. When looking at the FEMA, constructing homes with wind-resistant materials, such as laminated glass windows, steel doors, and reinforced roofs, or establishing public shelters designed with steel-reinforced concrete, could mitigate the impact of tornadoes, especially in vulnerable communities (NOAA, 2014; FEMA, 2019). Retrofitting existing structures, such as adding impact-resistant shutters and reinforcing roof trusses, in tornado-prone areas would also provide additional protection. This is particularly crucial in mobile home communities, which are disproportionately affected by tornadoes, where anchoring homes with steel straps and adding storm-resistant skirting could reduce the risk of complete destruction (Lim et al., 2023).

    Public education on emergency shelter practices is essential to ensure that individuals can respond quickly and safely when a tornado is imminent. Awareness campaigns should focus on informing the public about where to seek shelter, how to protect themselves, and what to do in the moments before and during a tornado. Regular community outreach programs and disaster drills can help reinforce these messages, especially in schools, workplaces, and community centers. Local governments should make sure that information on safe shelter locations is readily available through various channels, such as websites, social media, and public service announcements. In densely populated areas, it is critical to raise awareness of nearby tornado shelters, such as those located in schools, churches, or public buildings and that these shelters meet the latest FEMA standards and undergo regular updates and inspections to ensure they are fully equipped to protect individuals during severe weather. Not only that but providing clear guidance on evacuation routes and access to these shelters can help improve survival during these emergencies. Equally important is educating communities about secondary hazards that often accompany tornadoes, such as flooding, hail, and flying debris. The Double Danger report stresses that these risks can increase fatalities and injuries if not properly understood and addressed (NOAA, 2014). For example, during a tornado, heavy rainfall can lead to flash floods, which may trap individuals who seek shelter in low-lying areas or near rivers. Public education should emphasize the importance of avoiding flood-prone areas and provide guidance to safe evacuation routes that avoid such secondary hazards. Severe hail, which is often seen with tornadoes, can cause injury or further damage to homes and vehicles. As part of public education, communities should be trained to recognize the signs of a severe storm and to prepare for the threats that may accompany tornado activity (NOAA, 2014; The Weather Channel, 2014). 

 

 

                       A video of Vilonia Mayor James Firestone going over towns plans for rescuing victims   James Firestone goes over the town's plans for rescuing victims

References:

ABC News. Arkansas Tornado: Town of Vilonia Hit Hard. YouTube, 28 Apr. 2014, https://youtu.be/eNJUJmsuhvc.

CNN. "Powerful Tornadoes Kill at Least 35 People in U.S." CNN, 29 Apr. 2014, www.cnn.com/2014/04/28/us/severe-weather-tornadoes/.

FEMA. Taking Shelter from the Storm: Building a Safe Room for Your Home or Small Business. FEMA, 2014, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_taking-shelter-from-the-storm_p-320.pdf.

Lim, Jayoung, et al. “Vulnerability to Tornadoes and the Role of Mobile Homes in the United States: Assessing Disaster Risk Reduction Strategies.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, vol. 54, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102027.

National Climatic Data Center (NCEI). "2014 Severe Storms, Tornadoes, and Flooding." NOAA, 2014.

National Center for Environmental Information (NCEI). "2014 April Tornado Outbreak." National Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2014, www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/april-2014-tornado-outbreak.

National Weather Service. April 27–30, 2014 Tornado Outbreak in Arkansas. National Weather Service, 2014, https://www.weather.gov/lzk/svr0414c.htm#.

National Weather Service (NWS). "Tornado Outbreak in Vilonia, Arkansas." National Weather Service, 27 Apr. 2014, www.weather.gov/lzk/Tornado_Tracking.

National Climatic Data Center (NCEI). 2014 Severe Storms, Tornadoes, and Flooding. NOAA, 2014. Accessed 5 Nov. 2024. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/tornadoes/201404​.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). "April 27–30, 2014 Tornado Outbreak." NOAA, 30 Apr. 2014, www.noaa.gov/tornado-april-2014-outbreak.

The Weather Channel. "Tornado Outbreak Causes Massive Destruction in the South." The Weather Channel, 28 Apr. 2014, weather.com/news/tornado-outbreak-south-april-2014.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, FEMA. "FEMA’s Building Codes and Construction Standards." FEMA, 2017, www.fema.gov/building-codes-standards.